Manufacturing and use in the biology lessons of the dynamic model of the protein synthesis process. The sculpture of the invisible stages of the manufacture of a dynamic model

These are biological molecules that perform thousands of specific functions within each cell of the living organism. Proteins are synthesized in ribosomes in the form of a long polypeptide thread, but then quickly folded into their natural ("native") spatial structure. This process is called folding squirrel. It may seem surprising, but this fundamental process is still poorly understood at the molecular level. As a result, it is not possible to predict the native protein structure by its amino acid sequence. In order to feel at least some nontrivial aspects of this task, we will try to solve it for the next exceptionally simple protein molecule model.

Let the protein consists of completely identical links, sequentially connected to each other (Fig. 1). This chain can be bend, and for simplicity, we assume that it is bent not in space, but only in the plane. The chain has a certain bending elasticity: if the directions of the two adjacent links form an angle α (measured in radians), then such a compound increases the energy of the molecule on A.α 2/2, where A. - Some power dimension constant. Suppose that each link on the sides have two "contact areas", which links can be glued. Each such glue has energy - B. (that is, it lowers the energy of the chain by magnitude B.). Finally, we will assume that B. less A. (that is, the chain is enough of the elastic).

A task

What configuration Molecules from N. links will be the most energy profitable? Explorehow this configuration changes with increasing N..

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The most energetically advantageous configuration with minimal energy. Therefore, it is necessary to come up with how to arrange a large number of "gloveks" of the links (each of which reduces energy), but it is not too sharply bending the chain to be too sharply to increase its elastic energy.

In this task, you do not need to look for an absolutely accurate shape of the chain for each particular number of links. It is only necessary to describe the characteristic "patterns" that will occur with the optimal folding of this "protein molecule", and find, with what an example N. The molecule is more profitable to rebuild from one configuration to another.

Decision

The energy of an absolutely direct chain is zero. In order to reduce it, some links must stick. But for this, the chain must organize a loop, and the presence of a loop increases energy. If the loop is too long, then a large number of links that could contact each other remain without communication. These links can be combined, as if on a zipper, shortering, thereby loop, but its elastic energy will increase. Therefore, it is necessary to find such an optimal loop length, in which the forces of elasticity, expanding the loop, and the forces of communication, its "fastening", balanced.

Energy loops

Let there be a loop from m. Unknown links (Fig. 2). The characteristic angle between adjacent links in it is about 2π / m.. (In fact, this angle changes from the link to the link, since the most advantageous form of the loop is not at all round, but for an approximate study, our evaluation will go.) There are such compounds m. pieces so the loop has an energy of 2π 2 A./m.. I fasten it on one link. Then the loop will be shorter than two levels, and the energy of the entire chain will change by magnitude

If, on the contrary, break one connection, the energy of the chain will change to

Loop out m. The links are optimal when both of these changes are positive, that is, from an energy point of view, the loop is unprofitable, neither to lengthen or shock. Insofar as B. much less A., It is clear that the value m. It turns out much more units. Therefore, for the approximate estimate of the optimal m. These two inequalities can be replaced by one equality:

Thus, the optimal loop length is approximately equal

In all subsequent formulas under the letter m. It will be implied exactly the optimal loop length. Finally, it is useful to find the elastic energy of such an optimized loop; It turns out equal

This expression (loop energy in m./ 2 times more values B.) Very convenient for further computing.

When does the loop appear?

Now it is easy to find out when the chain of which length will not be more profitable to remain straight, and turn into a loop with a "double tail" length n.. To do this, it is necessary that the full energy of such configuration is negative:

Thus, if the length of the chain N. > m. + 2(m./2) = 2m., it is more profitable to form a loop.

When does the second loop appear?

"Double tail" is not the most convenient configuration, because every link "works" only one of the contact sites, and I would like both, at least some units worked. This can be arranged by forming a second loop (Fig. 3).

Condition for switching to two loops, E. 1 > E. 2, then give N. > 8m..

Very long chain

When the chain becomes very long, it is convenient to turn it out so that as much as possible the links can be glued with both contact areas. In this way, we get a configuration that resembles a canvas framed by loops. If you close your eyes to the fact that the adjacent loops interfere with each other, you can conduct a similar calculation and find the most advantageous number of loops for the specified N. (It grows in proportion to square root from N.). If you consider that the loops interfere with each other, then the calculations are sharply complicated. However, the overall structure will remain the same: the most beneficial will be flat web of some shape, framed along the edges of the loops. Those who wish can try to find the optimal form of the canvas using computer simulation, as well as to reflect on a similar task in three-dimensional space.

Afterword

This simple task, of course, cannot reflect the patterns of the folding of real protein molecules, nor the methods of modern theoretical physics, which are used in describing proteins and polymers (this area of \u200b\u200bactivity, by the way, is quite a serious section of condensed media physics). The purpose of this task consisted only in the demonstration of how "the quantity goes into quality", that is, when it changes only one numerical (and not qualitative) parameter of the task, it can fundamentally change its solution.

The task could be done a little more "alive" and interesting if you enter a non-zero temperature. In this case, the optimal configuration would be determined not only by energy, but also entropy, it would then correspond to the minimum of the so-called free energy of the molecule. When the temperature changes, then a real phase transition occurred, in which the molecule itself would be straightened, collapsed or rebuilt from one form to another. Unfortunately, such a task will require methods that go beyond the school program.

It is also curious to also note that the theoretical study of the folding of proteins is not at all reduced to one numerical modeling. In this, it would seem, the "straight" task is revealed rather non-trivial mathematical subtleties. Moreover, there are even works in which the methods of quantum field theory and theory of calibration interactions are involved in the description of this process.

You can practice in practice the optimal configuration of the protein on the Fold.it website.

How to be an autoconstructor mug? What are the cars in it? How to organize classes? These and many other issues were affected in recent publications M. L. Larkina and I. F. Rychkov "Project - model - machine" and "Car Designer - Auto Designer!" ("M-K" No. 1, 1979). Most of our readers interested technical Side Cases - a device of a modular microheater. Today we offer the latest development of the Siberian Autoconstructor Laboratory of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences - the protein micro-laureau.

At this small, elegant walking and sports "jeep" in just half an hour, it is possible to radically change the entire appearance. It is necessary to rearrange two or three design elements - and before you buggy. And if a desire to stop "protein" to the tourist car will appear, it is enough to install a removable awning-fairing on it. With no difficulty, it turns into a light truck. If necessary, the car easily disassembled and folds in its own cargo body, as in the box.

Despite the relatively small sizes ("Protein" freely posted even on the desk!), It is not a toy, but the most real car. Its speed is about 40 km / h, and fuel in the gas tank grabs 100 km of way.

How did the idea of \u200b\u200ba modular car? First of all, we were not satisfied with the timing of the design and construction of "traditional" machines - our boys had time to grow, graduate from school and leave the club, and not noving the wheel.

The schemes are not suitable for us and schemes using a frame and non-technology under the conditions of a circle of profiled panels. Such constructions, besides the fact that their embodiment requires too much time and forces, besides, absolutely immutable - another car on the basis of old is very difficult. Build new car Without using the elements of the old assignment.

1 - transverse springs, 2 - transverse thrust, 3 - Front pendant pendulum, 4 - Ladder of fastening of the front suspension, 5 - Spring frame, 6 - engine start lever, 7 - cross-beam frame, 8 - eye fastening pendulum rear suspension, 9 - rear suspension pendulum, 10 - rear wheel, 11 - longitudinal springs, 12 - engine VP-150.

And the last thing that prompted to take for the development of a transformed microheater vehicle is the problem of storage. The number of our developments slowly, but steadily increased; We kept several cars in the laboratory, the rest - in the garage. Interest in them disappeared, because the guys wanted to try the forces in the construction of his car, and gradually the work of several generations of the circles turned into scrap metal.

All this forced us to contact a fundamentally new idea - to design a multipurpose block (modular) car.

True, the objections were: some thought that the design of such a car would put a young designer into a rigid framework that interfere with the flight of creative fantasy. But most guys bowed to the thought that this would not happen. On the contrary, restrictions in the design will be able to show the maximum of ingenuity to the young automotive in the abundance of its own version on the basis of a standard set of elements.

Let us now mentally open the box-body and consider what the basis of the autocontstructor is.

Body "Proteins" -cruples is a box collected from sixmillimeter plywood and a duraluminous corner ends. From above lie details driver's chair - Back and seat. They are simple - the base (plywood is 6 mm thick) with the foam-plated foam rubber is covered with artificial skin of red. dimensions Seat 570x300 mm.

Under the details of the seat lies with a steel sheet of 720x510 mm with a thickness of 2 mm, beamed on one side of the ripple rubber, is the bottom of the car. Twelve holes Ø 4 mm over the edge of the sheet are designed for fastening the floor to the body.

After feeding the bottom, you will find six-on-board panels under it, which are the basis of the car body, since almost all other elements of the hull are attached to them.

In the center of the drawer between the onboard panels, a place for four wheels is left 3.50-5 Model B-25 A. The eight wheels and two hubs with bearings and axes assembled with turning pin and longitudinal traction are invested.

Two rocking shoes front BridgeWoken from gas pipes with external Ø 20 mm. There is also a submool frame that serves simultaneously the base of the rear axle and its suspension. It is welded from gas pipes Ø 30 mm.

In the same box of the body laid and a vehicle frame of the car square cross section 40x40 mm with a welded to her painters for fastening the rocking faces of the front and rear axles. Under the frame there are two springs (front - transverse and rear - longitudinal) and four stepladers with the imposition "We have for fastening the suspension to the frame. The springs can be selected from the car "Moskvich" any brand.

The designer's set includes steering wheel, steering column with brackets and leashes and transverse thrust with hinges. In a separate package - Control Pedals throttle valve Carburetor, clutch and brakes. The bottom of the body was laid the hood panel, windshield, rear seat backrest (it is the hood of a gas tank), front and rear wings, dashboard and two steel corner profiles 20x20 mm long 720 mm. In a special compartment there are headlights and farlights, overall lights, cables, speedometer, tamblers, a set of electrical wiring elements and a package of fasteners - bolts, screws, washers and nuts. Not forgotten and end wrench, screwdrivers.

The VP-150 engine is packed together with the gas tank, a benzoprovod hose and a kickstarter in a separate box.

Set of car details. We will try together together to collect one of the options of the autoconstructor, in particular, the micro-car "Protein" - "Jeep".

Start the build best with the chassis. To do this, the ridge frame should be put on the mounting platform and to it with two M10 bolts, it is superimposed to connect the submool frame and rocking faces of the front axle. The ends of the front transverse springs are introduced into the support brackets of the front axle, and the center is fixed by two stews on the frame.

The engine shaft is inserted into the left sleeve of the inspection frame, and it is dumbfounded to the frame with two stacking bolts. The axis of the free rolling wheel with bearings and the rope is inserted into the right sleeve of the inspection frame. After that, you can mount the rear longitudinal spring, one of the ends of which should be in the support bracket of the submool swing frame, and the other is fixed with two stepladers on the ridge frame.

Now proceed to the installation of the rear wheels. The first thing should be collected using three bolts and nuts tire with a camera and both discs and pump the wheel. The wheels are planted on the hubs of the rear axles, equipped brake pads and disks. The rear axle is thus fully assembled.

1 - emblem, 2 - dashboard, 3 - hood, 4 - backrest, 5, 17 - rear wing sidewalls, 6, 18 - body base, 7, 13 - onboard panels, 8, 14 - front wing sidewalls, 9, 15, 16 - front and rear wings (sizes in brackets - for rear wings), 10 - Front panel, 11 - pad, 12 - bottom, 19 - rear panel.

The next stage is the assembly of the front axle. First, two swivel trumps with the front wheels are installed on the fists of the rocking faces, fastened with a pivot and whopping. The hubs with the bearings pressed in them are put on the semi-axis. The assembly of the front wheels thicker does not differ from the relevant rear operations.

It remains to put the steering column and transverse thrust, and work on the chassis can be considered complete.

Now it is the body turn. To begin with, take a pair of body base panels and scrape them with four-dimensional bolts. Next, mount the onboard panels, wings with a mandatory insert of the noise absorbing elements. In the front and rear parts of the body, the openings formed when assembling are installed two spacer corners and fasten them with four bolts. The bottoms of the wings are called the bottom.

Next, the hood is consistently fixed (do not forget about gaskets!), Windshield, dashboard (mounted screws-screws), front headlights and rear oven lights. And in conclusion, a benzobac is installed in the finished housing, and the dashboard is a speedometer, sinks and ignition lock. The body is almost assembled, it remains to put the pedal and control levers and mount the wiring.

Now the body can be poked with the chassis, install control cables and a gas station. The car "Protein" - "Jeep" is assembled. You can go on the road.

M. Larkin, Head of the Laboratory of Experienced

modeling and constructing Kütte with an CCCR

The size of molecules, as a rule, is incommensurable less than that limit that can be seen by the eye, even using the best optical microscope - after all, the wavelength of visible light significantly exceeds the characteristic dimensions of most molecules. Therefore, to study the fundamental basics of life has to resort to simplifications - molecular models- So that biological molecules from the area, available exceptionally intelligence, moved to the area of \u200b\u200bsomething visible (on the display or sheet of paper) or even tangible. However, the molecules were not only the desired object for studying: their essence itself became for many scientists and artists an inspiration facility - and appeared molecular sculpture.

Surprisingly the desire of the Mind of Human
to the construction of models and to improve these
while they won't get closer and closer to reality ...
Ludwig Boltzmann
Truly incredibly how little mutual penetration
science of the XX century and the art of the same century.
Charles Snow. Two cultures

Historical reference

The concept of the atomic structure of matter goes back to antiquity - they are attributed to the philosopher to democritus, which arguing about the organization of all things. However, attention scientific The world fired on the problem of the structure of the substance already in the Middle Ages, when Johann Kepler reflected on the problems of symmetry of the snowflakes and the symmetric packaging of spherical objects (the task known as the 18th problem of Hilbert, which received a decision only recently). At the beginning of the 19th century, John Dalton has already talked about atoms as real particles of different mass and size, and closer to the middle of the century, the Austrian scientist Joseph Highsmith depicted various molecules in the form of a set of contacting circles. Creation of the first spatial Models of the molecule (it was methane) is attributed to Augustus Wilhelm Hofman, but the most important concept of chemical science - stereochemistry - was laid by Jacob Hendrick Want-Gooff, who paid attention to the tetrahedral structure of the electronic shell of the carbon atom in methane. The development of chemistry and X-ray crystallography led to the most important discoveries in the biology of the 20th century - the establishment of the spatial structure of DNA molecules and proteins, and the task of an adequate representation of the structure of biological molecules, especially complex, was very acute. Designers were developed for assembling molecular models (some of them are still sectoral standard), and the simultaneous development of computing equipment and computer displays led the appearance of programs aimed at visualization and the study of biomolecules.

Despite the unprecedented progress in the field of molecular graphics, which occurred over the past 10-20 years, the "physical" models of molecules have not lost their significance. Edgar Meyer, one of the "characters" of this story, well noticed some inferiority of computer graphics: " My first acquaintance with biomolecules taught me reverence in nature at the molecular level. Computer graphics, although attracts with its color dynamicity, is unable to fully transfer the entire three-dimensional charm of molecules».

Three-dimensional prototyping

The first models of the structure of the proteins were designed from a large number of balls, wires, sleeves, cogs and other parts. They were very cumbersome, fragile and demanded a lot of time and zeal for manufacture, even subject to the use of special "designers" - sets of standard parts for the assembly. Currently, computers have almost completely replaced such designers, but it is possible to look at the model of the molecule not only on the computer screen, but also "in real" means it is better to understand its function and evaluate the beauty!

One of the modern methods for the production of "solid" models of molecules (about "designers" we will not talk in detail, because they have already been enough about them before) is three-dimensional prototyping - The method of manufacturing volumetric layouts of any objects used, in particular, in industrial design. Making models is made on automated installations (including those controlled via the Internet), input data for which is a CAD file or file with the coordinates of protein atoms in the generally accepted PDB format. One of the companies offering to make a "solid" model of the protein - 3D Molecular Designs, "has a whole arsenal of prototyping technologies: stereolithography, selective sintering with a laser, production by laminating, modeling by sequential burning and three-dimensional printing. The latest technology is similar to conventional inkjet printing with the only principal difference that instead of ink such a printer uses special polymerizable composites like plaster or resin, and the object's printing occurs a layer for a layer until the model is ready. Three-dimensional printing leads among other speed prototyping technologies (although somewhat loses in quality) and, in addition, it is the only one that allows typing colored losses (due to the use of multi-colored "ink"). Models obtained using other technologies need to additionally paint after manufacture, because the specific color of atoms is very important for molecules for "layouts".

Scientists note that such models are extremely useful in training, because if a student can hold the hemotripsein molecule, hemoglobin or ribosomes in his own hands, it will be immediately at an intuitive level, it will feel like the structure of the protein is associated with its function - and this is one of the most important Aspects of molecular biology!

Russian go in 3D

It should not be thought that the issues of the visual representation of molecules and a high-tech material are generally occupied by the minds of exclusively foreign scientists. Moscow company Visual Science offers its services to create scientific illustrations, three-dimensional models of biological objects, multimedia presentations and plastic models of biomolecules and other biomedic objects (manufactured using three-dimensional printing technology). Among our goals, the company calls:

1. competent and visual feeding of scientific information using modern technologies;
2. creating professional illustrations and schemes for educational materials and textbooks;
3. illustrating popular science publications without actual mistakes that are replete with modern editions.

Protein crystals

Usually under protein crystals They mean specially prepared protein samples, due to their high-circuit structure capable of giving a clear diffraction pattern with X-ray irradiation (this effect is used for experimental studies of the protein structure (see, for example,)). However, there are other crystals - peculiar miniature works of art on the structure of the protein structure, made directly in the thickness of the glass unit.

Monument to antibiotic

Before the main entrance to the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of wounds named after academicians M. M. Shemyakina and Yu. A. Ovchinnikova (where I work - A. Ch.) There is a kind of sculpture. " Sculpture depicts a rolinomaniac antibiotic complex with potassium ion. The general principle of binding metal ions and their transfer through membranes with the help of ionophos was opened at the Institute in 1963"," Says the inscription on the pedestal.

Unusual models of molecules should be constructed from unusual materials. However, some enthusiasts of molecular sculpture, apparently, there are no funds for unusual building blocks - they use ... ordinary inflatable balls - "Hoshards"! (These are such long inflatable tubes, twisting which, clowns on the stage create animal figures.) On a special site dedicated to creating models of molecules from such balls, posted detailed instructions According to nodes that will need to master for construction, for example, the "inflatable" DNA molecule, and photographs of a large number of models. Website creators - Three candidates of science (ph.d.) from Germany - assure that their technology is indispensable in the educational process - at lectures and seminars.

Molecule do it yourself

Inspiration caused by biological molecules from scientists, encouraged them to daring to more, rather than the creation of absolutely accurate "physical" models - even despite its fascinating appearanceMotorly copied with modular files of the model remains only models. The romantic soul of researchers demanded more, and some of them began to create works of art "based on" the structure of proteins.

Figure 8. "Waltz polypeptides", author - Mara Haseltine. Sculpture is located at the Cold Institute Spring Harbor, USA. BLYS protein (B-lymphocyte-stimulating protein is responsible for the production of antibodies in the body) was opened with the participation of Mary's father and, apparently, it was why he became a central element of the composition.

Father Mary - William Haseltine - a famous scientist and businessman who organized seven biotechnological companies, among which - Human Genome Sciences, engaged in genomic studies aimed at combating incurable diseases, such as many forms of cancer or AIDS. " [On this sculptural composition of BLYS] grows from a microscopic embryo in a full-sized molecule- he comments on the creation of his daughter. - In science, the form defines the function. Knowledge of the structure is extremely important to understand something works. In the works of Mary, this form is shown. It is beautiful in its dynamic variability." The Mara itself confesses that her father and other scientists have always been for it inexhaustible source of inspiration. " This sculpture is devoted to my dad and the huge work he did"," Says sculptor.

In 2006, the Bronze sculpture "Inhibited SARS" opened in Singapore, made by Mara Heiselitine at a special invitation of the Biotechnology Consortium Guide to Biopolis, in whose territory there is a sculpture. During the epidemic of a heavy acute respiratory syndrome (or, as it is more often called, atypical pneumonia), Singapore scientists from this consortium conducted a thorough genomic study of the Coronavirus Topc, which causes the disease, and determined the spatial structure of the protease responsible for the penetration of the virus into the cell. This sculpture (Fig. 9) became a monument to work scientists, thanks to which a lot of human lives managed to save.

Figure 9. A huge bronze sculpture located in the Biopolis campus (Singapore) reveals the mechanism of operation of the SARS-Virus protease inhibitor operating in this scientific center

« We are incredibly lucky that we are endowed with consciousness, allowing to enjoy the beauty of our planet and, thanks to modern technologies, look at the microscopic world, located in each cell of our existence, and in the immense depths of space. It is this phenomenon that I am trying to reveal in my works"," Explains its creative role Haseltine.

Initially, the article "Struling Invisible" was published in "Computer".

Literature

1. Chugunov A.O. (2007). Stamp invisible. "Computerra". 712 , 24–26.

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The average rotor torque is:

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The approach for landing along the shortest path provides approach to the specified points of the rectangular route. A rectangular route is based on the construction of such an entry. However, it is not fully executed, but from the traverse of DPRM or from one of the turns. The decline from the route and the landing approach is performed under the same conditions and with the same limitations as the approach from the line.

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To prevent cases of getting into areas with dangerous for flights, meteolations need: 1) before the flight thoroughly examine the meteorological system on the highway and adjacent to it areas; 2) outline the order of circumvention of hazardous weather conditions; 3) Watch in flight for weather change, especially for the development of phenomena dangerous for flights; 4) Periodically receive on the radio information about SOS ...

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The formulas of the Theory of Glauert - Locke are removed for a rotor having any number of blades. Each blade is attached to the sleeve with a horizontal hinge, allowing it to produce crawls in the plane passing through the longitudinal axis of the blade and the axis of the rotor. The vertical hinge attachment of the blade, allowing it to fluctuate in the plane of rotation, is not taken into account when considering the movement of the blade. Chord...

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The model of the helicopter "Panni" (Fig. 54) was developed by the American aircraftist D. Burkhem. This miniature helicopter with a rubber motor is equipped with a tail screw and has a stabilization machine. The basis of the model is a strength rack of pine 114 mm long and a cross section of 5x5 mm. On the side glued a plate of foam with a thickness of 5 mm and spill in view of the side; It turns out a peculiar body of the model. From above ...

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If the rotor axis and c. t. Avtogyr is lying in the plane of the Symmetry of the Autogyla (Fig. 92), then the following fastening moments will be applied to the autogyr in the installed rectilinear flight: 1) the moment on the rotor head according to equation (78); 2) Moment from the transverse force, equal: 3) with engine flight the reactive moment of propeller, equal:

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The aerodynamic calculation of the autogyry is made in order to determine its flight characteristics, as: 1) horizontal velocities - maximum and minimal, without decreasing; 2) ceiling; 3) vertectout; 4) speeds along the trajectory with a steep planning.

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Launch of air coils An interesting sports occupation for schoolchildren and adults. Currently, there are holidays and festivals of air) Snakes. In the USA, in Boston, the competition is arranged for the best paper serpent. In Japan, the National Festival of Aerial Snakes is held annually, on which the snakes are launched with a length of 20-25 m. From 1963 he holds throughout Poland ...

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Cylindrical projections are obtained by designing the surface of the globe on the side surface of a tangent or securing cylinder. Depending on the position of the axis of the cylinder relative to the axis of the direction of the Earth, cylindrical projections may be: 1) Normal - the axis of the cylinder coincides with the axis of rotation of the Earth; 2) transverse - axis of the cylinder is perpendicular to the axis of the earth's rotation; 3) Kos ...

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Azimuth and range to the aircraft are determined by the display by the indicator screen on which the aircraft is depicted in the form of a bright luminous tag. Azimuth is counted relative to the northern direction of the true meridian on the indicator scale, which has a digitization from 0 to 360 °. The inclined range to the aircraft is determined on the indicator along the scale rings (Fig. 16.1). Accuracy of distance definition ...

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To ensure the regularity of flights, the ship commander has the right to decide on the departure of incomplete confidence on meteorological conditions in the possibility of landing at the destination airfield. Such a decision can be accepted only with a complete guarantee that, according to the conditions of the weather, the plane landing is possible on one of the spare airfields, including the airfield of the departure. When receiving a decision on departure may ...

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In the practice of aircraft carrier, the highest distribution was obtained by the helicopters of the simultal scheme. The simplest model of helicopters only on the principle of the flight resembles a prototype, it will be more or rather called "flying screw". And among aircraft modelists, the name of the "fly" was strengthened at such a screw. The simplest helicopter - "fly" (Fig. 51) consists of two parts - airspeed and rod.

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Terms of aircraft over unbearable terrain. Unbearable is called a terrain with a monotonous background. It is a taiga, steppe, desert, tundra, large forest arrays, as well as poor surrenders, for which there are no accurate cards. An aircraft over unbearable terrain is characterized by the following conditions:

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Radio formation works are conducted by the navigator in order to determine, compensate for radio formation and the preparation of the residual radio formation graph in the following cases: 1) when installed on the aircraft, a new radio compass or its separate blocks; 2) after the execution of the regulations, under which individual radiompass blocks were replaced; 3) when the errors in the flight indicators are found in flight flight ...

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The height of the flight N is called the distance vertically from the aircraft to the level accepted by the beginning of the reference. Height is measured in meters. The knowledge of the flight height is necessary for the crew to withstand a given flight profile and prevent the collision of the aircraft with the earth's surface and artificial obstacles, as well as to solve some navigation problems. In the aircraft, depending on the level ...

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To check the NI-50BM, before the flight it is necessary: \u200b\u200b1. Include the power supply of the device across the variable and direct current. 2. Enable and prepare for the work of the GIC. The testimony of the GIC after the coordination and testimony of the machine gun of the navigation indicator should not be different than ± 2 °. 3. Install on the rate of the course and the windcard of the wind MUK \u003d MK of the aircraft. 4. Enter wind to the windcard sent ...

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So the story has ordered that the aircraft on which the first flight of man was carried out was a thermal balloon. It has long been noticed that up and smoke and heated air rises. The first attempts of building and flights on the thermal ball belong to the middle of the XVIII century. But the accuracy of these facts has not yet been confirmed. Some of the first who wanted to use those ...

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For the manufacture of the model of the Planer "DOSAAF" (Fig. 18), except for paper, scissors, ruler and pencil will also need glue. It is best to use PVA glue, and paper is from albums for drawing. From the drawing through the cells endure the shape of the fuselage on the folded twice the paper blank and cut it out. Then the wing, cargo, spar and keel are then cut out. On the templates parts arrow indicated ...

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When the flight began during the day, and ends at night or vice versa, you need to know what time there will be a meeting of the aircraft with darkness or dawn and what is the duration of night flight. Time and place of the aircraft meeting with darkness or dawn can be calculated using NL-10M or on schedule. Consider the order of such calculation using NL-10M.

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If in the design of the autogyry, it is referred to in mind its main characteristic qualities, like: a steep landing angle and low minimum horizontal flight speed without a decrease, the choice of the rotor diameter must be made by setting such a load W per unit surface of the overemost disk of the rotor at which the vertical speed of the steep The landing would be safe. The load values \u200b\u200bon the rotor ...

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The navigation indicator can be used in the following methods: 1. Method for monitoring the distance traveled. 2. The method of controlling the remaining distance (by the arrival method to zero). 3. The conditional coordinate method.

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To calculate the time and place of the meeting of aircraft flying on the oncoming courses, you need to know the distance between the S "airplanes, the way speed of aircraft W1 and W2 and the time of the flight by airplanes of control orientations. Time of rapprochement of the TSB terminal \u003d S" / W1 + W2

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Multiplication and division of numbers on the NL-10M is performed on scales 1 and 2 or 14 and 15. When using these scales, the values \u200b\u200bof the numbers applied to them can be increased or decreasing to any time, multiple of ten. To multiply the numbers on the scales 1 and 2, it is necessary to install a rectangular index with a number of 10 or 100 scales 2, and breaking the multiplier to count on the scale of 1 the desired work.

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Above it, it was said that the carrier screw-rotor when the autogyr moves freely rotates - copototes. The status of a stable reproach of the carrier screw is absolutely prerequisite For all possible flight modes of the autogyla, because the necessary lifting force is developing only on the copotaging screw. In addition, the rotor blades, in the presence of a hinge attachment to the sleeve, could when there was no ...

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To speak about equipping a mug of a pioneer camp with machine equipment, apparently does not make sense. It is under the power of only large camps and requires a special premises. As practice shows, the machine "skillful hands" is quite accessible to any mug and has ample opportunities in the work. For normal operation, the aircraft requires a general and individual use tool. Main Instel ...

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The flight from the ground radio can be carried out in the case when it is located in the source route (IPM), the turning point of the route (PPM) or at any other point on the Lzp. When using VHF of radio finders for controlling the path in the direction is requested in the telephone mode From the Radio Felmer on the plane (direct bearing - PP) with the words "give a straight place". Etc...

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The purpose of this game is the achievement of the highest range of flight. Before starting, it is necessary to specify how many times each participant will launch its model, in other words, how many credit flights will be (usually - three). And before them it is necessary to give the opportunity to make one or two training (target) launch. The order of access to the start is usually determined by the draw.

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Crew readiness readiness after his pre-flight navigator training is carried out by navigators (airports, airports, airport duty officers), and with their absence - dispatchers of ADP airports of departure. In flight educational institutions, the carriage of the crew is controlled by the navigators of the aircadrylium (aircraft carriers) and the head of flights. Flag-navigator flag ...

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For those who do not have the ability to build a model of foam, we propose to make an electriene of a typical design (Fig. 46). The main material for the wing is bamboo. From it, edges, ribs and finishes are made: for edges - a cross section of 2x1.5 mm, for other parts-1x1 mm. The spar is littered with a pine rail with a cross section of 1.5x1.5 mm. All connections are performed using threads ...

If the forest is located next to the country, it is very likely that some of its inhabitants want to live nearby. As you know, the birdhouses are manufactured for birds, for some animals - cells. No less interesting to make a squirrel lodge with your own hands. Moreover, it is easy to make it, and if proteins will settle on the site, it will only revive the terrain.

To make a damnitker correctly, it is necessary first of all to take into account the characteristics of the behavior of the protein:

1. The house is manufactured only from wood. At the same time, it is not processed by the verse, varnishes or paints - any extraneous smells will scare protein.
2. Boards or logs can be taken any, but they must be surely dry - the wet tree will dry very slowly, and if you hang a bobbed from fresh wood, he will not have time to dry out to winter.
3. Since in our winter latitudes can be sufficiently harsh, then at the design stage of the house, it is important to consider all the walls to be quite thick, and the inner surface is important to lay dry warm materials (moss, cotton cloth, napkins).
4. If the board is too dangerous and contains a lot of chips, it must be sanded so that the proteins do not scratch.

Thus, a well-made-made Lacadenik is a house that is as close as possible to the conditions of natural (squirrel hollow) and at the same time quite warm enough so that the proteins in it are good even in frosty days.

A well-made gathering machine is a house that is as close as possible to the conditions of natural squirrel hollow.

Production of a simple protein feeder

You can make a conventional protein feeder from the girlfriend literally for 1 day.

1. Create a project and a drawing of a house, which accurately take into account the ratio of the size of all parts: bottom, side walls and roofs (you can also make the back wall and shelves).
2. Select the material for the house - the dry wooden board is optimally suitable.
3. Transfer all the details on the board with a pencil and ruler; Carefully cut them out.
4. Creare all parts with nails or screws.
5. Fix the feeder on the tree with strong wire or clamps.

There are other, more simple options Making feeders - for example, from a cardboard box or plastic bottle. But these are very short-lived models, besides, proteins will be swept away in feeders made of natural materials, and not artificial.

Gallery: Lodge for Squirrel (25 photos)

How to make a gloss with your own hands (video)

How to make a lodge for squirrel with your own hands

Make a house from the board is not very difficult. It is important to correctly calculate the dimensions of all parts and securely bore them with each other.

Determine with dimensions and build a drawing

Before the construction of the Lacter, it is important to accurately calculate all the sizes of its walls and the roof. One of the proven options is presented in such details:

1. Parameters of the bottom and roofs 55 cm in length, 30 cm in width.
2. Side walls are the same: 45 * 25 cm.
3. Internal septum with parameters 25 cm in length and 20 cm in width.

Important! In this variant, the usual house with a flat roof will be. However, you can make it and vaulted. Then work will be somewhat larger: you need to calculate the angle of the arch, the roof parameters and perform the endings of the side walls in the form of the corners so that the house was completely sealed.

Before the construction of the Lacter, it is important to accurately calculate all the sizes of its walls and roofs.

Preparation of materials and tools

To work, you need to use only wood board, it is preferably sandwicked so as not to plant yourself and whites. The fundamental requirements for the material only 2 - it must be untreated, and the wall thickness ideally from 1.5-2 cm.

Tools that will be needed for this work are as follows:

• pencil and ruler;
• wood hacksaw;
• lobzik (desirable electric);
• screwdriver and self-tapping screws;
• paper essay;
• waterproof adhesive without smell.

To work you need to use only wood board

Stages of manufacturing a lodge for proteins

Making a house includes 2 large stages - drinking all parts and their connection into one. The sequence of actions will be like this:

1. Transferring all parts to a wooden board with a pencil and ruler. This is a very responsible task - errors should be within 5 mm.
2. Drinking all rectangular parts by contour.
3. Drinking in the upper third of one of the lateral sides of the round hole with a diameter of no more than 7 cm.
4. Sunshine of all surfaces, if necessary.
5. Bonding all parts with waterproof glue. If it is not possible to choose adhesive without smell, it is better not to use it at all.
6. Give the whole design to dry during the day outdoor sun.
7. Scrap with self-drawing (with a screwdriver) all the details.
8. Hang a house on a tree with a clamp or wire.

How to make a feeder for protein (video)

Decorative design of the house for protein

The lodge for the protein can be decorated with any decorative elements that like. But the main condition is to like them and proteins. As already mentioned, these animals do not tolerate any artificial smells. Accordingly, painting the house can not anyway.

Accordingly, only "natural" decor means are available, for example:

• cones that can be knitted with nails to the walls or roof of the Garbagenik;
• elements of artistic wood thread (option is suitable for house-log houses);
• pictures that can be previously lit on the board, from which to make the walls of the house;
• the entrance decor - you can make the semblance of a porch (platform, like a birdhouse); This element has practical benefits - proteins will be easier to get inside.

The house for the protein can be decorated with any decorative elements that like

How to make a squirrel house from a solid log

Make a home-made log house will be somewhat more complicated - you need to make more effort to cut all items in a dense wood. However, I. the advantages of such a house before the previous model is undoubtedly there:

• one-piece wood is a completely natural material in which proteins will feel like in natural hollow;
• there are thick and dense walls of the walls, therefore they are always warmer than boarding analogs;
• finally, the log house looks more natural, it will look good on the background of any tree.

The main condition for creating a good house in this case is to find good, sufficiently dry log suitable sizes. If it was unpacked from the tree quite recently, it is better to dry it within the day outdoors. However, if you have no opportunity to wait for a long time, you can first make a damnik, and then dry the finished product, hanging it on a tree.

Make a house from a solid log will be somewhat more complicated

The sequence of actions will be like this:

1. Dimensions are defined in advance. As described in the example above.
2. From the log, a piece of 6-7 cm thick is scolded - it will be the roof of the future house.
3. Next, the house itself is unscrewed - in length it is usually from 40 to 50 cm.
4. Now the most difficult and time-consuming stage comes - you need to vouch the cylindrical cavity inside. The main requirement is that the wall width is at least 5 cm so that the proteins do not froze in the winter;
5. Next, round input is cut - in diameter no more than 7 cm, this animal is quite enough.
6. If possible, before entering, you can attach a branch for which protein will be convenient to get into your home.

The finished little damnik is fixed to the tree, as described above.

You can attach the house with the help of clamps or wires, but not sticking it to the tree - it will hurt him

Garden installation rules in the garden

Here are some simple rules that need to be considered at the stage of placement of the Damnik on the tree:

1. Attach the house with the help of clamps or wire. But not sticking it to the tree - it will hurt him.
2. It should be properly chosen - it should be quite thick throughout the length and not swing from the wind. For example, a young, low birch for such purposes is clearly not suitable.
3. If it is possible, it is best to fix the house on coniferous trees - so the proteins will feel at home; Oak is also suitable, the last preference can be given birch or aspen.
4. The height of the location of the Gatherine must be at least 5 meters.
5. It is best to attach it from the south or east side, which gets the maximum amount of light. However, if the winds constantly blow on these parties, then attach the house should be at a different place.

Correctly choose the place for fastening the feeders is no less important than to make it high quality. Proteins are very fearful little animals, and they will not live even in a very good house, if they consider his position not enough safe.